Presenting Your CASE
First, you must have a clear idea of just what your case, issue, or point of view is. Second, you must be aware of the relation of your position on this case or issue to your position on other issues. The reason for this obvious. You do not want to present your case on one issue in such a way that it might cause conflicts or future embarrassments when you present your position on another issue. Third, you should have some clear idea of the audience to whom you are presenting your case. Are their people who already share your opinion, are they undecided, or are they likely to be unreceptive or openly hostile?
No doubt your audience may consist of any combination of the foregoing possibilities. Different audiences will require different approaches. Fourth, you must understand the medium you are using to convey your case. Are you speaking directly to people? Finally, you must constantly keep in the forefront of your mind the purpose for which you are presenting your case. If you are a rational teacher trying to present an objective case you will do one thing (like considering the shortcomings of your position). The last point is worth dwelling upon. If you know what you want to achieve (your purpose), and if you know the people with whom you want to achieve your end (your audience), and the means available to you (medium), then you will be better able to achieve your end. No doubt there are all kinds of clever and brilliant things you might do, but it is equally clear that some of these clever and brilliant things may be irrelevant, in which case they may detract attention from you main purpose or even be counterproductive. If you remember that the important thing is winning, then you are not likely to go off in all directions at once. Analogously, there is no reason for leading a dazzling and disastrous cavalry charge (however immortal this may make you in the hearts of poets) when a simple artillery barrage will do the job.
The presentation of your case should be given in three main parts:
(1) Arousing sympathy for your case.
(2) Presenting facts, or what will be taken as facts, to substantiate your case.
(3) Driving hoe the conclusion.
In presenting a case we have to appeal to people whose interests are not uniform. There are at least six different types of audience from the point of view of audience interest.
(1) The audience may consist of people who agree with your end or ultimate goal.
(2) The audience may consist of people who agree both with your end or ultimate goal and with the means you are suggesting for reaching it.
(3) The audience may consist of people who agree with your end but only as a means to some other end that they so not share with you. What is and end for you, therefore, may be a means for them.
(4) The audience may consist of people who agree with your means but seek thereby to achieve different ends. In other words, what you have in common is means but not ends.
(5) There are of course combinations of the above where some of the audience agree on the end and some agree only on your end as a means to their somewhat different goals. This is a combinations of (1) and (2) above.
(6) There are complex audiences wherein an end for you is a means to them, but the additional end they foresee is an acceptable end for you as well. This is a combination of (3) and (4). Here you must argue for something as both a means and an ultimate end at the same time.
Gaining A Sympathetic Audience
The notion that one can engage in argumentation by simply launching into the presentation of information is a foolish one. Everyone, including the speaker and the audience, has a frame of reference in terms of which he speaks and to which he implicitly or explicitly appeals. It is essential that you keep this form of reference in mind when presenting your case. If you want to prepare the audience for the presentation of your point of view and to gain a sympathetic hearing as well, then appeal to the common frame of reference that you share with the audience.
Appeal to Pity
To appeal to pity is to appeal to the emotions of your audience, emotions that you expect to be favorably directed to your cause. The most effective use of the appeal to pity does not involve the use of highly emotive and inflammatory language; rather it relies upon the bare presentation of simple and unchallengeable facts. It is important that this appeal not be overdone so that members of the audience are not unnecessarily antagonized. This especially true when the audience is not well known to you or when they are still undecided about the issue raised.
Appeal to Authority
To appeal to authority is to inform your audience that prominent people are in favor of the position you are urging. The appeal to authority, like the appeal to pity, is an attempt to establish a frame of reference for the rest of your cases. Moreover, if you can appeal to the right authorities; you are also guaranteeing a more sympathetic hearing for your case.
There are at least eight qualifications that should be kept in mind when citing authorities. First, you should be sure that the authority you cite is not considered a liar by members of your audience.
Second, you must present authorities who are considered disinterested by the audience, that is, authorities who do not have a vested interest in the case you are discussing.
Third, the audience should consider the authority to be conscientious about the area in which he claims expertise.
Fourth, when an authority is invoked it is best to make sure that the authority is well known.
Fifth, the authority used must be an expert in the relevant field.
Sixth, if possible, the authorities cited should be both current and historical.
Seventh, the authority cited should have an opinion that is representative of the general expertise in his field.
The eighth qualification is that the authorities should be as numerous, as diverse, and otherwise as different as possible.
Appeal to tradition (Sacred Cows)
Appeal to precedent
Theoretical Constructs
Classification
Analogy
Statistics
Drawing Home The Conclusion
There are certain key words and phrases that not only signify to the audience that you are drawing the conclusion but, at the same time, reinforce in the minds of the members of the audience that your conclusion is the right one. The following key words and phrases should be used profusely when stating the conclusion:
(1) obviously
(2) certainly
(3) there is no question that...
(4) of course
(5) surely
(6) it is clearly evident that....
Evidence and conclusion are related to each other in at least one or two ways. Either the conclusion is a specific instance and the evidence consists of generalizations under which the specific instance falls, or the conclusion is a generalization and the evidence consists of specific instances that support the conclusion.
Let us look at the first possibility:
general--------------------------------specific
Let us now examine the second possibility:
specific-------------------------------general
Statistical evidence is more often than not an example of going from specific cases to a general conclusion.
It is, of course, possible to defend a position or a conclusion by using both general and specific information. In fact, the strongest arguments usually have this doubled-barreled kind of support.
In the initial presentation, only positive evidence should be presented on behalf of your case.
To begin with, act as if your solution had only positive residual benefits. Second, know what problems outside of the one under discussion are most on the minds of the audience. Third, claim that each and every one of these major problems will also be solved or at least ameliorated defined: "make or become better" by adopting your position on the specific issue discussed.
The real clincher to any conclusion is the use of emotion language, either positively toward what you favor negatively toward what you oppose.
Nonverbal Devices
Your assessment of the audience is crucial.
In oral presentation, voice is important. Your voice must be sincere and confident, but above all it must be deep. Facial expressions and eye movements are also important in this respect. The general rule here is to look people straight in the eye and never have shifty eyes.
The nature of the room or general surroundings are also important.
No doubt your audience may consist of any combination of the foregoing possibilities. Different audiences will require different approaches. Fourth, you must understand the medium you are using to convey your case. Are you speaking directly to people? Finally, you must constantly keep in the forefront of your mind the purpose for which you are presenting your case. If you are a rational teacher trying to present an objective case you will do one thing (like considering the shortcomings of your position). The last point is worth dwelling upon. If you know what you want to achieve (your purpose), and if you know the people with whom you want to achieve your end (your audience), and the means available to you (medium), then you will be better able to achieve your end. No doubt there are all kinds of clever and brilliant things you might do, but it is equally clear that some of these clever and brilliant things may be irrelevant, in which case they may detract attention from you main purpose or even be counterproductive. If you remember that the important thing is winning, then you are not likely to go off in all directions at once. Analogously, there is no reason for leading a dazzling and disastrous cavalry charge (however immortal this may make you in the hearts of poets) when a simple artillery barrage will do the job.
The presentation of your case should be given in three main parts:
(1) Arousing sympathy for your case.
(2) Presenting facts, or what will be taken as facts, to substantiate your case.
(3) Driving hoe the conclusion.
In presenting a case we have to appeal to people whose interests are not uniform. There are at least six different types of audience from the point of view of audience interest.
(1) The audience may consist of people who agree with your end or ultimate goal.
(2) The audience may consist of people who agree both with your end or ultimate goal and with the means you are suggesting for reaching it.
(3) The audience may consist of people who agree with your end but only as a means to some other end that they so not share with you. What is and end for you, therefore, may be a means for them.
(4) The audience may consist of people who agree with your means but seek thereby to achieve different ends. In other words, what you have in common is means but not ends.
(5) There are of course combinations of the above where some of the audience agree on the end and some agree only on your end as a means to their somewhat different goals. This is a combinations of (1) and (2) above.
(6) There are complex audiences wherein an end for you is a means to them, but the additional end they foresee is an acceptable end for you as well. This is a combination of (3) and (4). Here you must argue for something as both a means and an ultimate end at the same time.
Gaining A Sympathetic Audience
The notion that one can engage in argumentation by simply launching into the presentation of information is a foolish one. Everyone, including the speaker and the audience, has a frame of reference in terms of which he speaks and to which he implicitly or explicitly appeals. It is essential that you keep this form of reference in mind when presenting your case. If you want to prepare the audience for the presentation of your point of view and to gain a sympathetic hearing as well, then appeal to the common frame of reference that you share with the audience.
Appeal to Pity
To appeal to pity is to appeal to the emotions of your audience, emotions that you expect to be favorably directed to your cause. The most effective use of the appeal to pity does not involve the use of highly emotive and inflammatory language; rather it relies upon the bare presentation of simple and unchallengeable facts. It is important that this appeal not be overdone so that members of the audience are not unnecessarily antagonized. This especially true when the audience is not well known to you or when they are still undecided about the issue raised.
Appeal to Authority
To appeal to authority is to inform your audience that prominent people are in favor of the position you are urging. The appeal to authority, like the appeal to pity, is an attempt to establish a frame of reference for the rest of your cases. Moreover, if you can appeal to the right authorities; you are also guaranteeing a more sympathetic hearing for your case.
There are at least eight qualifications that should be kept in mind when citing authorities. First, you should be sure that the authority you cite is not considered a liar by members of your audience.
Second, you must present authorities who are considered disinterested by the audience, that is, authorities who do not have a vested interest in the case you are discussing.
Third, the audience should consider the authority to be conscientious about the area in which he claims expertise.
Fourth, when an authority is invoked it is best to make sure that the authority is well known.
Fifth, the authority used must be an expert in the relevant field.
Sixth, if possible, the authorities cited should be both current and historical.
Seventh, the authority cited should have an opinion that is representative of the general expertise in his field.
The eighth qualification is that the authorities should be as numerous, as diverse, and otherwise as different as possible.
Appeal to tradition (Sacred Cows)
Appeal to precedent
Theoretical Constructs
Classification
Analogy
Statistics
Drawing Home The Conclusion
There are certain key words and phrases that not only signify to the audience that you are drawing the conclusion but, at the same time, reinforce in the minds of the members of the audience that your conclusion is the right one. The following key words and phrases should be used profusely when stating the conclusion:
(1) obviously
(2) certainly
(3) there is no question that...
(4) of course
(5) surely
(6) it is clearly evident that....
Evidence and conclusion are related to each other in at least one or two ways. Either the conclusion is a specific instance and the evidence consists of generalizations under which the specific instance falls, or the conclusion is a generalization and the evidence consists of specific instances that support the conclusion.
Let us look at the first possibility:
general--------------------------------specific
Let us now examine the second possibility:
specific-------------------------------general
Statistical evidence is more often than not an example of going from specific cases to a general conclusion.
It is, of course, possible to defend a position or a conclusion by using both general and specific information. In fact, the strongest arguments usually have this doubled-barreled kind of support.
In the initial presentation, only positive evidence should be presented on behalf of your case.
To begin with, act as if your solution had only positive residual benefits. Second, know what problems outside of the one under discussion are most on the minds of the audience. Third, claim that each and every one of these major problems will also be solved or at least ameliorated defined: "make or become better" by adopting your position on the specific issue discussed.
The real clincher to any conclusion is the use of emotion language, either positively toward what you favor negatively toward what you oppose.
Nonverbal Devices
Your assessment of the audience is crucial.
In oral presentation, voice is important. Your voice must be sincere and confident, but above all it must be deep. Facial expressions and eye movements are also important in this respect. The general rule here is to look people straight in the eye and never have shifty eyes.
The nature of the room or general surroundings are also important.
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